土地兼并

明朝后期，土地兼并达到惊人的地步。

The annexation of land came to the surprising extent at the end of the Ming Dynasty .

他克制自己不要提出一些重要的决策例如裁减官员、削减开销以及控制土地兼并。

He restrained himself from putting forward such crucial proposals as reducing the number of redundant officials , cutting down redundant expenditure and controlling annexation of land .

土地兼并是古代中国的一个顽症。

Land annexation was a persistent ailment of the Ancient China .

民国以后，土地兼并使农民土地减少，而农民的生产经营条件并没有多大改善，加之苛捐杂税及高利贷加重，农民负担加重，农村经济日益走向破产。

Productive condition of peasants has not improved , but their lands are becoming small .

透视宋代的土地兼并问题

Land Annexation Problems of Song Dynasty

这个国家的疆界改变了，将山那边的一块土地兼并进来了。

The country 's boundaries were changed to take in a piece of land beyond the mountain .

明末时期，政治日益腐败，土地兼并现象严重。

In the late Ming Dynasty , political corruption and land annexation was becoming serious day by day .

晚期，土地兼并集中的矛盾日益尖锐，政策上以缓和土地兼并为主导。

In the later of Western Han Dynasty , some measures was carried out to relieve the land annex .

当前学术界的主流观点为，土地兼并是建立在封建土地剥削和掠夺的基础上。

The mainstream consensus is that land annexation in traditional China was based on the exploitation and robbery of the poor .

土地兼并是反复进行的低水平重复，其实质是换手。

The merger of land was not repeated at low levels , the essence of which was transferring from hand to hand .

但它却带来意想不到的后果，其中之一就是土地兼并的加速前进。

And it also brought about some unexpected consequences , one of which refers to the high-speed development of the land annexation .

土地兼并与集中是封建经济的必然产物，它与经济的发展、朝代的兴衰息息相关。作为土地集中的结果&大土地所有制，对封建经济的发展乃至某一朝代的兴衰产生了深远的影响。

Annexing lands as well as centralization is inevitable result of feudal economy , which led to the up and downs of those dynasties .

论土地兼并的合理性及其根源&两汉人地关系个案研究

On the Rationality and the Sources of Land Annexation ── Case Studies of the Proportion between Land and Population in the Western and Eastern Dynasties

但是在人口增长与土地兼并冲击下，西汉后期环境保护法制遭到破坏。

However , with the population to increase and the land to be annexed , the environmental protection legal system of Western Han to encounter breakage during its evening .

由于自然灾害、战争和土地兼并等原因，宋代出现了一些无家可归，四处流浪的流民。

Because of natural calamity , war and annexation of land , there were many refugees who were no home to go or wandered here and there in the Song Dynasty .

经济也遭到了极大的破坏，土地兼并十分严重，农民四处逃亡。

The economy also suffered heavy losses , most tillable fields were annexed , and the farmers were compelled to escape all around . All of these advent situation invited farmers " revolts .

土地兼并是社会需求日益增长的必然产物，是生产效率提高的合理结果，是推动国土深度开发的动力。

Land annexation was an inevitable product of the ever increasing social demands , a natural result of the promotion of working effciency , and a driving force for land development in the country .

官营二业，不仅影响了封建官府的行政效率，而且加速了官僚队伍的腐化，加剧了土地兼并的步伐，严重影响了封建社会的长治久安。

This not only severely affected the work efficiency of the government but accelerating the corruption of the officials and land annexation as well which in turn affected the stability and security of the society .

豪强势力的崛起是历史发展的必然趋势，由他们主导的土地兼并也是必然的历史现象，西汉王朝最终由于土地兼并而崩溃。

The rise of the Local despotic force was inevitable and the land annexation led by these forces was also natural in history . Due to land annexation , The Western Han Dynasty declined in the end .

宋朝政府对土地兼并和土地买卖实行放任甚至鼓励的政策，土地所有权的频繁和自由转移成为了这一时期的主要标志。

The Song Dynasty government implements the policy which to the land annexation and land business the laissez faire even encourages , land ownership and freedom of the frequent movement of the main hallmark of this period .

加之江南土地兼并严重，商品经济发达，造就了一批江南富豪地主，他们不再寄希望于政治，也无意于政治，就在居住的城市中自建园林，过起了隐逸的生活。

Land acquisition is serious in Southern , well-developed commodity economy , created a number of wealthy Southern landowners , who no longer hopes politics , nor in politics , they live in self-built garden , and gave hermit life .

然而封建社会的顽症是土地兼并、阶级矛盾尖锐，由统治阶级自行举办的科举考试尽管可以揭示某些表层化的社会现象，却没能力从根本上解决这一规律性的问题。

However , the most serious problems of the feudal society were the land problem and sharp class contradiction problem . Although the Imperial Examination System held by rulers disclosed some apparent problems of the society , it was not able to resolve the regular problem .

随着唐代中后期商品经济的恢复和发展，使得土地兼并如洪水猛兽，由此引发贫富分化等连锁反应。

In the middle and later Tang Dynasty , most people gradually began to annex land all over the country because of the resurrection of commodity economy at that time , which caused a chain reaction such as the polarization between the rich and the poor .

唐前期的民户流亡与唐代的官僚政治制度有着密切联系，一些引起民户流亡的主要因素如赋役繁重、官僚腐败、土地兼并等，同时也是实施官僚政治的弊端所在。

The refugee issue of the early Tang dynasty closely linked to bureaucratic political system of Tang dynast . Some main reasons leading to refugee , such as heavy corvee and taxes , bureaucratic corruption and land annexation , was also the malpractices of bureaucratic political system .

随着土地的兼并，不但产生了新的农衬资产阶级，而且产生了新的穷人。

There was arising from the seized land not only a new rural bourgeoisie but new paupers .

采用氧化削尖技术对硅尖进行锐化处理.而经济上，由于土地的兼并和集中，社会矛盾日益激化。

The silicon tips were sharpened by means of oxidation sharpening . And in economy , the contradiction became sharpened for the land was divided and plundered .

同时，土地买卖与兼并日渐盛行。

At this period , the land transaction and annex were popular .

社会冲突更加频繁，政治和军事的扩张和土地的快速兼并耗尽了北宋政府的财力。

Both military and political expansion together with quick land annexation pace gravely depleted the government treasury .

民间工商业利润除了一部分用于生活消费、交通权贵和囤积射利外，大多用于土地的购买兼并和转化为高利贷资本。

In contrast , profits from private industrial and commercial sectors were mainly used as capital for land acquisition and usury , apart from what was retained for living expenses and social activities .

相对较发达的商品经济社会，宋初为巩固中央集权采取的不抑兼并的土地政策是宋代土地兼并兴盛的根本原因；

The basic reason why annexation of land in Song Dynasty was very popular was that the commodity economical society developed relatively free in Song Dynasty and the government adopted the land policy not controlling annexation at the beginning of Song Dynasty .